1. Basic Issues: How to Approach the Study of Personality Theories 1
A Useful Metaphor: The Mask and the Person Beneath 1
Beginning the Study of Personality: A Personal Note 2
One Truth or Many Perspectives? 3
Personality Theories as Creative Solutions to Personal Problems 5
What About Abnormal Psychology? 6
Personology Or Personality Theory? 8
Impact of Culture and Society 9
Three Major Tools for Evaluating Personality Theories 10
Additional Dimensions of Personality Theories 12
Some Welcoming Words 14
For Further Reading 14
Glossary 14
2. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Clinical Evidence 15
About Freud’s Clinical Psychoanalysis 15
A Personal Aside: Why Study Freud’s Ideas? 16
The Hysterical Neurosis of Bertha Pappenheim 17
“Clouds”: Self-Induced Hypnosis 19
Hypnosis and Hysteria: From Pathology to Cure 24
Frau Emmy Von N. 28
First Clue in the Discovery of Free Association: Freud Learns to Listen 30
The Theoretical Yield from Frau Emmy’s Therapy 32
The Evolution of Method: Fraülein Von R. 33
Second Clue to the Free Association Method: The Pressure or Concentration Technique 34
The Theoretical Yield from Fraülein Ilona Weiss’s Therapy 39
A Final Clue to the Free Association Method 41
Freud’s Continuing Theorizing about Hypnosis 42
Compromise Formation: The Meaning of Symptoms 42
Sexual Motives as the Basis of Conflict: Origins of the Hypothesis 44
Freud’s Integrity Questioned— and the Questioner Questioned 47
Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: Freud’s Self-Analysis 49
Psychosexual Development: Oedipus and Electra 53
The Complete Oedipal Complex 58
Psychosexual Stages: Libidinal Organization 63
Evaluating Clinical Psychoanalysis 67
Summary 69
For Further Reading 70
Glossary 71
3. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Dynamic Model of the Mind 74
About Freud’s Model of the Mind 74
Dreams as Wish Fulfillment 75
Personal Sources: Freud’s Father and Mother Dreams 76
Manifest and Latent Dream Content: The Mask 80
Four Processes of Dream Work 81
Study of the Dream: Theoretical Yield 84
The Reality Principle 88
The Meanings of the Unconscious in Psychoanalysis 89
Metapsychology of Repression 91
Instincts of the Unconscious 93
Characteristics of Instincts 93
Dualistic Division of the Instincts: Hunger versus Love 94
Behaviors Beyond the Pleasure Principle: The Clinical Evidence 97
Reduction of the Pleasure Principle to a Pleasure “Tendency” 98
Revision of Instinct Theory: Eros and Death 100
The Final Structural Model of the Mind 103
The Id 104
The Ego 104
The Superego 106
Id, Ego, Superego Interactions 109
Freud’s Changing Conceptions of Anxiety 110
Evaluating Theoretical Psychoanalysis 113
Summary 116
For Further Reading 117
Glossary 118
4. Alfred Adler / Individual Psychology 121
Adler’s Individual Psychology 121
Adler’s Boyhood Difficulties: Illness, Rejection, and the Fear of Death 122
Freud and Adler: Dissent over the Fundamental Human Motive 123
Adler’s Differences with Freud 124
On Human Nature—Adler, the Naϊıve Optimist, or Freud, the Realistic Pessimist?125
From Minus to Plus Self-Estimates 126
Masculine Protest: Not for Men Only 128
Social Interest and Adler’s Religious Values 129
Individuality, Social Interest and Style of Life: Vaihinger’s Idea of Fictional Finalism 129
Combining Vaihinger’s Ideas with His Own Theory 130
The Neurotic Personality: Overdoing the Search for Perfection 131
Social Interest and the Tasks of Life 135
Individuality, Social Interest, and Style of Life 137
Early Recollections as Indicators of Style of Life 138
Ordinal Position within the Family as Indicator of Style of Life 139
Evaluating Alfred Adler 141
Summary 143
For Further Reading 144
Glossary 145
5. Carl Gustav Jung / Analytical Psychology 147
About Jung’s Analytical Psychology 147
Experimental Study of Word Associations 148
Emotional Complex Indicators 149
Discovering a Case of Criminally Negligent Homicide through the Word Association Test 150
Jung’s Concept of Libido 152
The Principles of Equivalence and Entropy 152
Learning from Ancient Mythology 153
Visionary and Creative or Just Crazy? 154
Jung and Freud: From Admiration to Bitterness 159
Jung’s Philosophical Background 160
Structure of the Psyche: Ego, Personal, and Collective Unconscious 160
Archetypes and Their Origins 162
Archetypes, Popular Culture, and Society 166
Jungian Attitude Types: Freud the Extrovert and Adler the Introvert 166
The Functions of the Psyche 167
The Extrovert Types 168
The Introvert Types 170
The Process of Individuation 171
Development of the Self: A Teleological View of Life 172
Evaluating Carl Jung 174
Summary 176
For Further Reading 177
Glossary 177
6. Anna Freud / Widening the Scope of Psychoanalysis: Ego Psychology 179
About Ego Psychology 179
Legitimizing Ego Psychology 180
Personal Sources: From Being Unwanted to Becoming Indispensable 180
Widening the Scope of Analysis: Little Patients’ Problems 185
Making the Child Analyzable: The Preparatory Phase 186
The Child Analysis: Proper Techniques 188
The Theoretical Yield: New Meanings for Familiar Analytic Concepts 192
The Ego Defends Itself: Profiles of Mastery and Vulnerability 199
A Final Word on Anna Freud 204
The Legacy of Anna Freud 204
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Ego Psychologists 205
Summary 205
For Further Reading 206
Glossary 206
7. Melanie Klein & Donald W. Winnicott / The Psychoanalytic Heritage: Object Relations Theories 208
About Object Relations Theories 208
MELANIE KLEIN
What are Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theories? 209
Psychoanalysis as Pedagogy: Educating Erich 209
Klein’s Discovery of “Phantasy” 209
Development of the Object World 211
Infantile Sadism and the Oedipus Complex 212
How It All Turns Out: Klein’s First Theory of the Superego 215
Anxiety: First Modifications of Klein’s Developmental Theory 217
Hate Versus Guilt: Repairing the Ravages of Sadism 219
Paranoic and Depressive Positions: Klein’s First Theory 220
Manic and Depressive Positions in Adult Psychopathology 221
Love, Guilt, and Reparation 224
Projection + Identification = Splitting Revisited 225
Reparation: The Link between Positions 229
Envy and Gratitude: The Forever Generous, Tolerant, and Bountiful Breast 230
Defending Against Envy: The Most Deadly of Sins 232
Some Personal Sources of Klein’s Vision of the Infant’s World 234
A Final Word on Melanie Klein 237
D. W. WINNICOTT
A Commonsensical and Creative Child Analyst 237
Unconventional Psychoanalysis: The Pediatric Consultation Model 240
Early Theory: The Kleinian Influence 245
Primitive Personality Development: Winnicott Style 247
Environmental Emphasis: “There’s No Such Thing as a Baby” 249
Exploring Deeper Questions 257
Personal Sources from Winnicott’s Childhood 258
A Final Word on D. W. Winnicott 261
Evaluating Object Relations Theory 261
Summary 262
For Further Reading 265
Glossary 265
8. Erik Homburger Erikson / Psychoanalytic Ego Psychology: The Centrality of Identity 267
About Erikson’s Ego Psychology 267
Identity’s Architect 268
Life History Sources of the Identity Hypothesis 270
Clinical Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: War Veterans 271
Anthropological Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: The Oglala Sioux 273
The Ego Identity Hypothesis and Psychoanalytic Theory 274
Psychosocial Development: An Epigenetic Sequence 275
Viewing Erikson’s Epigenetic Theory of Identity Formation 276
The Life Cycle: Eight Stages of Human Development 278
Acquiring a Sense of Trust versus Mistrust: Hope 280
Acquiring a Sense of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt: Will 281
Acquiring a Sense of Initiative versus Guilt: Purpose 283
Acquiring a Sense of Industry versus Inferiority: Competence 284
Acquiring a Sense of Identity versus Role Confusion: Fidelity 285
Acquiring a Sense of Intimacy versus Isolation: Love 287
Acquiring a Sense of Generativity versus Stagnation: Care 288
Acquiring Ego Integrity versus Despair: Wisdom 289
Applying Erikson’s Stage Theory 291
Some Concluding Remarks on Erikson 291
Evaluating Erik Erikson 292
Summary 293
For Further Reading 294
Glossary 294
9. Harry Stack Sullivan / Interpersonal Theory 298
About Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory 298
Three Modes of Experience: Prototaxic, Parataxic, Syntaxic 299
The Development of Personality: An Interpersonal Emphasis 301
Differentiation of Self from the Universe 302
Personal Sources of Sullivan’s Emphasis on Human Relationships 303
Personifications of Self: Good-Me, Bad-Me, Not-Me 309
The Self-System: Security Operations 311
Selective Inattention 313
Me-You Personifications 313
Developmental Epochs: From Infancy to Late Adolescence 314
Evaluating Harry Stack Sullivan 318
Summary 319
For Further Reading 320
Glossary 320
10. Karen Horney / Psychoanalytic Social Psychology 322
About Horney’s Social Psychoanalytic Approach 322
Anxious in a Hostile World 323
Neurotic1 Needs and Trends 325
Personal Sources of the Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility Hypotheses 326
An Illustrative Case: Clare, An Unwanted Child 331
Despised Real Self, Ideal Self, and the Actual Self 332
The Core Neurotic Conflict: Alienation from Real Self 334
Interpersonal Coping Strategies: Moves Toward, Against, and Away from Others 335
Auxiliary Conflict Solutions 339
Horney’s Feminist, Culturally Based Modifications of Freudian Theory 341
A Final Word on Karen Horney 343
Summary 343
For Further Reading 344
Glossary 344
11. Gordon W. Allport / Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346
About Allport’s Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346
Was Young Allport Misunderstood by Freud Himself? 347
“How Shall a Psychological Life History Be Written?” 348
Toward a Personalistic Psychology 349
Personal Sources of Allport’s Emphasis on Uniqueness and Independence 350
Personality: Allport’s Definition 352
Personal Documents: An Idiographic Approach to Life History 356
An Illustrative Case: Analysis of Jenny Gove Masterson’s Letters 358
Criticisms and Allport’s Responses 361
“Traits Revisited”: Heuristic Realism 362
The Mature, Healthy Personality 362
Functional Autonomy: Allport’s Theory of Motivation 366
Evaluating Gordon Allport 368
Summary 369
For Further Reading 370
Glossary 371
12. Rollo May / Existential Phenomenology 373
About Rollo May’s Existential Phenomenology 373
A Lonely Young Man, Looking for Answers to Deep Questions 374
Existential Phenomenological Psychology and Psychotherapy 377
Contributions of European Philosophy 377
Ontological Principles: “Mrs. Hutchens” 378
The Problem of Nothingness 383
Personal Sources of May’s Existentialism 385
Love and Will 388
Four Forms of Loving 388
Good and Evil 391
Will 392
Freedom 394
Destiny 395
Evaluating Rollo May 397
Summary 398
For Further Reading 399
Glossary 400
13. Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers / Humanistic Self-Actualization Theory 402
About Maslow and Rogers’ Humanistic Psychologies 402
ABRAHAM MASLOW
What About the Healthy Personality and the Striving for Full Self-Realization? 403
The Origin of Maslow’s Interest in Psychological Health 404
Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: “In Pursuit of Angels” 406
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Persons 408
Learning from Critical Mentor Figures 410
The Hierarchy of Needs: From Deficiency to Growth Motivation and Self-Actualization 410
Beyond Self-Actualization: The B-Values 419
Humanistic Psychology: The Third Force 421
Toward a Transpersonal Viewpoint 421
CARL ROGERS
A Harbinger of Things to Come 422
Rogers’ Theory of Personality and Behavior 423
Psychotherapist as Self-Actualization Facilitator 426
Development of the Nondirective Viewpoint 428
Personal Sources of Rogers’ Emphasis on Freedom and Self-Worth 430
Early Nondirective View: Too Much Freedom 433
Client-Centered Therapy: Empathic Understanding 434
Experiential Therapy: The Conditions of Personality Change 434
Personality Changes Evoked by the Therapeutic Relationship 436
The Fully Functioning Person: Ideal Mental Health 437
Rogers’ Model of Development 438
The Importance of Approval 438
Incongruence between Self and Experience 440
Personality Disorganization 440
Some Criticisms of Rogers’ Approach 441
Operationalizing the Concept of Self: Q-Sort Methodology 441
Evaluating Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers 443
Summary 444
For Further Reading 445
Glossary 446
14. George A. Kelly / Personal Construct Theory 449
About George A. Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 449
Uncovering a Person’s Constructs of Personality 450
Grid Form of the Rep Test: A Person’s Own Personality Theory 452
Kelly: The Inventive Psychological Tinkerer 455
Each Person is a Scientist 457
Kelly’s Fundamental Postulate and 11 Corollaries 457
Construction and Individuality Corollaries: The Person as a Process 458
Hierarchy of Experience: Organization and Dichotomy Corollaries 458
Choice, Range, and Experience Corollaries: Limitations of Anticipation 459
Modulation and Fragmentation Corollaries: Variation versus Stability 460
Commonality and Sociality Corollaries: Shared Experience 461
The Mask Metaphor Again 462
The CPC Cycle: Circumspection, Preemption, and Control/Choice 463
Some Traditional Personality Variables as Kelly Recast Them 466
Evaluating Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 468
Summary 469
For Further Reading 470
Glossary 470
15. Albert Bandura / Social Cognitive Theory 472
About Social Cognitive Theory 472
Misconstrued as a Behaviorist 473
What About Bandura’s Own Life? 480
Developmental Phases of Self-Efficacy 481
Selective Activation of Self-Controls 488
Bandura’s Model of Anxiety and Repression 489
Does Chance Play a Role in Life? 491
Bandura’s Theories and Today’s World 492
Evaluating the Approach of Bandura 492
Summary 493
For Further Reading 494
Glossary 494
16. Hans Eysenck / Biologically Based Typology 496
About Eysenck’s Biologically Based Typology 496
Research Psychologist as Scientist and a Bit of a Maverick 497
Childhood Sources of Eysenck’s Intellectual Independence 497
Early Descriptive Researches: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism 501
Historical Antecedents of Introversion-Extroversion Dimensions 503
Pavlov’s Dogs: Excitation-Inhibition Temperaments 504
Hull’s Drive Theory: Individual Differences in Performance 509
Individual Differences and Eysenck’s Typology 510
Arousability and the Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS) 512
Translation of Excitation-Inhibition into Arousal Concepts 514
A Direct Test of the Arousal Theory: Stimulant and Depressant Drugs 519
Acquisition of Neurosis: The Socialization of Introverts and Extroverts 519
Psychoticism: Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited 521
Psychoticism, Crime, and Genetics 522
The “Big Five”: A Model Based on Factor Analysis 526
Evaluating Eysenck’s Typology 528
Summary 529
For Further Reading 531
Glossary 531
17. Edward O. Wilson / Evolutionary Psychology 534
About Evolutionary Psychology 534
The Roots of a Naturalist 535
Encountering Lorenz and His Ideas 538
Darwin’s (and Wallace’s) Theory of Natural Selection 539
Wilson Encounters Hamilton’s Ideas 541
From Insect Societies to Sociobiology to Human Nature 542
Evolutionary Concepts in Classical Personality Theories 544
Further Developments in Evolutionary Psychological Thinking 549
Human Nature Does Exist 553
Evolutionary Psychology from a Broader, More Objective Perspective 554
Some Misconceptions About Evolutionary Psychology 555
How Might an Evolutionary Psychologist Proceed? 557
An Actual Example—Not of Postdiction, but of Prediction—Sort of 558
Evolutionary Psychology and Psychopathology 561
A Final Word on Evolutionary Psychology 562
Summary 564
For Further Reading 564
Glossary 565
Bibliography 567
Photo Credits 585
Name Index 587
Subject Index 591
Robert Sollod is currently Professor of Psychology at Cleveland State University. His research interests include personality theories and their origins, psychotherapy integration, and the relation of spirituality to psychotherapy. He is a member of the American Psychotherapy Association and the Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration.
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